How Computers Are Designed for Extreme Environments

Designing electronics today can be complicated. Computers, phones, and other devices must be able to do a lot in a small package. Meeting those rising functionality demands while protecting against high heat, freezing lows, and other extreme environments is all the more challenging.

As difficult as it may seem, many modern electronics function in harsh industrial or outdoor settings. Some even work in outer space or the depths of the ocean, and they can be operated remotely. So, how is that possible?

It begins with determining which factors a device must withstand. Once engineering teams know what the usage environments look like, they address each hazard through several material and design choices.

Protecting Against Extreme Heat

High temperatures are among the most common extremes a computer must face. Factories and the outdoors get hot, but heat can lead to excessive electrical loads and malfunctioning batteries. Designers address this hazard in two primary ways — cooling and low-power components.

Conventional computers often use fans to keep them cool. Rugged alternatives typically employ liquid cooling, as water has 25 times the thermal conductivity of air, making it far more efficient. Clever design tricks like spacing out sensitive components and dissipating heat through metal channels and holes can also help.

Low-power components are another piece of the puzzle. Typically, things like CPUs generate a lot of heat because they use considerable energy. Newer, low-energy versions produce lower temperatures from the start, so cooling systems don’t have to work as hard. Heat-resistant materials like gallium nitride are another promising alternative.

Keeping Out the Cold

Extreme temperatures on the other end of the spectrum can pose problems, too. While mild cold is good for computers, sub-freezing temperatures can create condensation inside the device and cause issues with moving parts. Lithium-ion battery capacity also drops in low temperatures, which is why electric cars lose up to 50% of their range in freezing weather.

Insulation is the best line of defense against this hazard. Foam or silicone insulators can keep electronic components’ natural heat in so they remain at safe operating temperatures. Minimizing open-air vents can also help, though this is difficult if the device must also operate in warmer conditions.

Material choices also play a role. Military-grade alloys are less susceptible to warping amid temperature fluctuations, and OLED screens won’t freeze like an LCD might. Some cold-weather electronics avoid components like disk drives and fans to prevent problems with moving parts.

Preventing Intrusion

Intrusion from dust, water, or other foreign objects and particles is another concern in extreme environments. Protecting against this hazard is largely a matter of sealing sensitive parts from the outside. Manufacturers often follow a scale called an ingress protection (IP) rating to determine how well they do that.

IP ratings consist of two numbers, with the first indicating resistance to solid contaminants and the latter referring to protection against liquids. Every increase of two IP rating points corresponds to a 12-fold increase in intrusion protection. So, an IP22 device is safe against solid particles of 12 millimeters or larger, while an IP44 one keeps out particles as small as 1 millimeter.

Electronics designed for rugged environments meet high IP ratings, cutting their components off entirely from dust and water. As impressive as that is, it’s often relatively simple. The design simply encases vulnerable parts in a tightly sealed container.

Surviving Physical Shocks

Computers in industrial or extreme environmental settings must also be able to withstand physical shocks. Collisions, vibrations, falls, and other impacts can all break small components, but thoughtful material selection and cushioning can keep them safe.

Metals and advanced composite materials are preferable to plastics because they’re less brittle. Placing components in a tighter, more balanced arrangement can also help, as consolidating the electronic’s mass makes breakages less likely and dampens vibrations. Cushioning to spread out the force of an impact, often through rubber or reactive foam, provides an additional layer of protection.

In some cases, devices must withstand physical pressure from multiple angles. Manufacturers account for this by enclosing key parts in a protective housing. These containers are often spherical, as round shapes evenly distribute pressure over the entire surface area, whereas angles create concentrated stress points.

Fighting Off Electromagnetic Interference

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is another challenge. All electronics emit some amount of EMI, and this radiation is even more prevalent in space, where there’s no atmosphere to disrupt it. These energy waves can interfere with device functionality, especially communication features, so it’s important to protect against them.

Consumer device certifications often require EMI testing to prove that products won’t interfere with other electronics or vice versa. Manufacturers meet this need through a mixture of design choices and insulation. Insulation is the most straightforward part — EMI shielding through metal Faraday cages or foam padding carries electromagnetic signals away from vulnerable parts.

Grounding an electronic circuit also helps, as it moves excess electrical energy away from the device to prevent electromagnetic waves from escaping. Keeping high-power components at the center of a circuit board, adding capacitors to absorb excess energy, and reducing electric channel length can all help, too.

Designing Computers for Extreme Environments Takes a Lot of Planning

Making a computer function in a rough environment requires careful attention to detail and rigorous testing. Designers must anticipate the kinds of hazards their devices will encounter and follow these best practices to account for them. Even after proper planning, it usually takes some real-world testing and redesigns to get things right.

As technology advances, it’s getting easier to build more robust electronics. New materials and more efficiently operating components mean manufacturers can protect against the elements with fewer additional systems. With so much research providing so many options, there are relatively few situations that modern device design can’t prepare for.